TEACH PROLOG JL Cunningham, 1982, updated AS 1986
CONTENTS - (Use <ENTER> g to access required sections)
-- Introduction to Prolog for POP-11 users
-- Running Prolog
-- Adding to the Prolog database: assert
-- Predicates
-- Constants and variables in Prolog
-- Predicate variables don't work
-- Retract
-- Lists in Prolog
-- Prolog patterns
-- Preparing assertions in a file
-- Running VED from Prolog
-- Inference rules in prolog
-- Reading rules and assertions from the terminal
-- Defining a paternal grandfather
-- Defining other relationships
-- Tracing in Prolog: spy
-- Built in predicates
-- ALPHABETIC LIST OF EVALUABLE PREDICATES.
-- Relevant reading-- Introduction to Prolog for POP-11 users ---------------------------
If you are familiar with the POP-11 database then the easiest approach to
programming in PROLOG may be to regard PROLOG as a kind of database, but
a database that can actively work out new facts from rules you supply it
with, i.e. make specified "inferences".
(In PROLOG there is nothing corresponding to the POP variable DATABASE -
the only way to "get at" the database is via the prolog equivalents of
"add", "remove", "lookup", etc..)
-- Running Prolog -----------------------------------------------------
To run PROLOG log in and type
to VMS or the Unix SHELL
prolog
If there are different prolog systems on your machine, then you may
have to give a different command to get the POPLOG Prolog, e.g.
on VMS
pop11/prolog
or on unix
pop11 -prolog
will suffice.
Prolog will respond with a message and then will prompt you with "?-".
(It will also work if you type "prolog" to POP-11, e.g.
prolog
but the prolog system then has to be loaded, and this takes a very long
time.)
-- Adding to the Prolog database: assert ------------------------------
The equivalent to the POP-11 "add" procedure is called "assert" in
PROLOG, but before you can use it you have to know about the syntactic
differences between languages like POP-11 and PROLOG. In PROLOG, the
basic data structure is called a "compound term". A prolog compound term
looks rather like a POP-11 procedure call, e.g.
f(x,y)
Run prolog, and after the prompt type
assert(f(x,y)).
Don't forget the full stop after the compound term.
This is like the POP 'add([f x y]);'. Prolog should respond "yes".
Now try typing (after the prompt):
f(y,x).
Prolog should respond "no" (notice that x,y and y,x are in a different
order). It is not being argumentative, what you have typed is
equivalent to the Pop11:
if present([f y x]) then "yes" => else "no" => endif;
As you can see, prolog is considerably more concise than Pop11.
Unfortunately, with this version of prolog, it is necessary to have at
least one piece of information about 'f' before you are allowed to ask
any questions about 'f', which is why it was necessary to 'assert' an
'f' fact to the prolog database before asking the first question. This
is actually a helpful feature fordebugging purposes later on.
*****************************************
-- Predicates ---------------------------------------------------------
Although you "can" use lists in prolog, the database is organised around
the concept of predicates. A predicate is like a natural language
sentence with one or more "holes", called "places", in it, e.g.
"The brother of Cain is ...."
When the place is filled in, e.g. "The brother of Cain is George", we
get a complete sentence which is either true or false (that is why
procedures which return true or false are called predicates).
In this example, of a one-place predicate, it is more sensible to take
the two-place predicate:
"The brother of .... is ...."
and to say that one of the holes in this two-place predicate has been
filled in by "Cain". In Pop11 you could represent this with a list:
[brother cain ?a]
whereas in prolog it looks like:
brother(cain,A).
-- Constants and variables in Prolog ----------------------------------
"Cain" must begin with a small "c" because of another syntactic
convention of prolog: the equivalent of POP-11 words are "constant
terms", and always begin with a small letter. This is as if POP-11 had
the convention that instead of writing '"cain"' you could write "cain",
but only for words starting with a small letter. (Numbers are also
constant terms in both Prolog and Pop11).
Words beginning with a capital letter in Prolog are variable terms
(variables). So, now type (don't include the ?-, and don't forget the
full stop).
?- assert(brother(cain,abel)).
?- brother(cain,A).
?- brother(A,abel).
?- brother(sam,A).
?- brother(cain,abel).
?- sister(cain,abel).
and so on. On first reading, skip to next row of asterisks.
-- Predicate variables don't work -------------------------------------
Unfortunately, ?- RELN(cain,abel) won't work. It won't work because the
designers of the prolog language didn't allow questions with a variable
in the predicate position. This makes prolog programs more efficient. If
you needed to find out what predicate is true of two given constants,
then you could have asserted it differently, e.g.
?- assert(fact(brother,cain,abel)).
?- fact(RELN,cain,abel).
*****************************************
-- Retract ------------------------------------------------------------
The opposite of assert is "retract". Retract is like Pop11 "remove".
*****************************************
-- Lists in Prolog ----------------------------------------------------
As mentioned above, although the basic prolog data structure is a
compound term, prolog also has lists. Prolog lists are like this:
[the,cat,sat,on,the,mat]
The commas are necessary. There is nothing corresponding to the Pop11
percent signs (nor is there ever any need for it, because of the
aforementioned syntactic convention about constant and variable terms).
It is not possible to directly assert (add) a list to the database, as
in POP-11, but you can store items involving lists in the database. For
example,
assert([this,and,that]).
will cause prolog to protest, but
assert(blat([this,and,that])).
is okay. Again, as in POP-11, you can use "patterns" to search for things
in the prolog database. However Prolog patterns have a very different
syntax from POP-11 patterns.
-- Prolog patterns ----------------------------------------------------
In Prolog the following pattern will match "A" to the head of a list,
and "B" to the tail:
[A|B]
Another example:
[x,y|R]
This is a Prolog pattern that matches any list beginning with "x", then
"y"; and "R" matches the rest of the list. So, "|R" is a bit like "??R"
at the end of a list in POP-11. If this pattern is matched to
[x,y,z] then R is matched to [z]
[x,y,w,v,u] then R is matched to [w,v,u]
[x,y] then R is matched to []
On first reading skip to next row of asterisks.
You could assert facts like this: assert(fact([brother,cain,abel])).
This is not the same as before: in the earlier example "fact" is a
three-place predicate, and each place is filled by a constant. With the
list brackets example, "fact" is a one-place predicate and the place is
filled by a list.
*****************************************
Lists are useful in prolog for data that might be of variable length,
but for items of fixed length, like relationships, it is better not to
use lists.
*****************************************
-- Preparing assertions in a file -------------------------------------
It is a nuisance to have to keep typing "assert", so prolog provides a
facility for reading a file, and asserting each fact automatically.
Using VED, prepare a file of family relationships, something like:
mother(luthien,dior).
father(beren,dior).
mother(nimloth,elwing).
father(dior,elwing).
mother(elwing,elrond).
mother(elwing,elros).
father(earendil,elrond).
father(earendil,elros).
father(elrond,arwen).
mother(celebrian,arwen).
mother(galadriel,celebrian).
father(celeborn,celebrian).
-- Running VED from Prolog --------------------------------------------
To call VED from inside prolog, you can do
?- ved familytree.
to mean 'edit the file called familytree'. Leave the editor as usual,
and the file will be read into the prolog database. To read a file
directly into the prolog database type the filename in list brackets
(followed by fullstop), e.g.
?- [familytree].
-- Inference rules in prolog ------------------------------------------
Now suppose you want to inform prolog about new relationships, e.g.
paternal grandfather? You need a rule saying that if X is the father
of Y, and Y the father of Z, then X is the paternal grandfather of Z.
Prolog will be able to use the rule to make an "inference".
To create this rule, you just add a sentence to the database saying what
you mean. Actually, prolog facts and rules, even though they end with
fullstops, are called "clauses" (see TEACH CLAUSES if you are running
prolog).
Since "asserting" is such a nuisance it is easier to put the
clause for this rule in a file.
-- Reading rules and assertions from the terminal ---------------------
If you want prolog to read from your terminal as if from a file, the
special filename "user" can be used:
?- [user].
Every clause (fact or rule) typed now will be added to the database
until you type the "end of file" character, usually <CTRL> D on Unix
machines, and <CTRL> Z on VMS.
-- Defining a paternal grandfather ------------------------------------
The clause for making the paternal grandfather inference could be:
pgrand(X,Y) :- father(X,Z),father(Z,Y).
You can translate that, roughly, as
'pgrand(X,Y) follows from father(X,Z) and father(Z,Y)'
I.e. ":-" means "follows from", or "if", and "," can mean "and" in that
context.
Variable names used in one clause are completely separate from those in
any other clause, so X,Y and Z can be used again without confusion. They
are like local variables in a Pop11 procedure.
-- Defining other relationships ---------------------------------------
Consider the following:
aunt(X,Y) :- sister(X,P),parent(P,Y).
What this clause says is "X is an aunt of Y if X is the sister of some
person, P, and P is a parent of Y". But prolog doesn't know what a
sister is, so lets add the information: "A person, say X, is the sister
of another person, say Y, if she is a girl, and a sibling of Y".
sister(X,Y) :- female(X),sibling(X,Y).
What do the following mean?
sibling(X,Y) :- parent(Z,X),parent(Z,Y).
female(X) :- mother(X,Y).
In fact the definition of sibling is wrong, because it allows someone to
be their own sibling, we must change the definition to:
sibling(X,Y) :- parent(Z,X),parent(Z,Y),not(X=Y).
How do we define a parent? How about:
parent(X,Y) :- mother(X,Y).
parent(X,Y) :- father(X,Y).
That says "X is a parent of Y if X is a mother of Y" and
"X is a parent of Y if X is a father of Y".
Does this work? Try it!
A more concise way of writing that could be:
parent(X,Y) :- mother(X,Y);father(X,Y).
Whereas a "," means "and", a ";" means "or" (and ":-" means "if").
Our definition of aunt does not include aunts by marriage. Add another
clause to the database that tells prolog that the wife of an uncle is an
aunt. Tell prolog a clause that will let it infer the wifeof
relationship.
*****************************************
-- Tracing in Prolog: spy ---------------------------------------------
Suppose you tell prolog that the wife of an uncle is an aunt, and that
the husband of an aunt is an uncle, then ask "?- uncle(beren,elrond)",
what do you think will happen? Tell prolog to spy:
?- spy.
then try it. 'spy' is a debugging aid, that causes prolog to tell you
what is happening and ask you what to do next at frequent intervals.
When 'spy' prompts you, type 'h' return for a list of options. It is
also possible to 'spy' individual relations, rather than everything.
(See below, and HELP * SPY).
*****************************************
Together with the list of "evaluable predicates" below, this is all you
need to know to write many prolog programs. The only remaining things
have to be explained in order to explain the "!" (pronounced "cut") to
be explained in TEACH CUT (not yet written).
-- Built in predicates ------------------------------------------------
Below is a list of "evaluable predicates", some of which are "built in"
to the prolog system, and some can be obtained by loading the prolog
library file called 'useful'. Those marked with a crosshatch ("#") in
the left margin are in that library file and to use any of these you
must first load the 'useful' library file, i.e. do
?- library(useful).
Those evaluable predicates with an asterisk ("*") in the left margin are
the ones I consider most likely to be of use to the beginning prolog
programmer, others can be ignored for now but are included for
completeness.
The built in predicates are described in more detail in:
HELP * PREDICATES
-- ALPHABETIC LIST OF EVALUABLE PREDICATES. ---------------------------
* ! Cut choices back as far as the last proper
ancestor
* abort Abort all current executions
*# append(X,Y,Z) List Y appended to list X is list Z
arg(X,Y,Z) The Xth argument in term Y is Z
* assert(X) Add clause X to the database
asserta(X) Put clause X in the database before
others for the predicate
assertz(X) Put clause X in the database after
others for the predicate
* atom(X) X is an atom
atomic(X) X is an atom or an integer
break Get a new invocation of the top level interpreter
call(X) (The goal represented by term X)
clause(X,Y) There is a clause in the database
with head X and body Y
consult(X) Read clauses and goals from file X (atom)
* debugging Print the list of currently active spy points
display(X) Write X on the current output in prefix format
* fail (A goal that always fails)
functor(X,Y,Z) X is a term whose functor is Y and arity Z
get(X) Read characters and return X, the first printing
char
get0(X) Read the next character X (integer)
from the current input
halt Exit from system to DCL
* integer(X) X is an integer
length(X,Y) Y is the length of the list X
* library(X) Load prolog library X
* listing(X) List all clauses with atom X as predicate
*# member(X,Y) X is a top-level member of list Y
name(X,Y) Y is the list of the characters (integers) of
X's name
* nl A newline is taken on the current output
nodebug Same as 'nospy' - remove all spy points
nonvar(X) X is not a variable
* nospy Remove all spy points, See "spy".
* nospy X Remove any spy points on predicate X (atom
or list)
* not(X) (A goal that succeeds iff goal X fails)
# once(X) Defined: once(X) :- X,!
* op(X,Y,Z) Declare atom Z as an operator of type Y
and precedence X
phrase(X,Y,Z) used in certain prolog parsers
* print(X) Write out X suitably, using "portray" if
possible
* read(X) Read term X (terminated by .) from current
input
reconsult(X) Read clauses from file X to change existing
ones
* repeat (A goal that succeeds in infinitely many
different ways)
* retract(X) Remove clause X from the database
retractall(X) Retract all clauses that match X
see(X) Switch current input to be from file X (atom)
seeing(X) X is the current input file (atom)
seen Close current input file, and switch
back to standard input
skip(X) Read characters until the code X appears
* spy Set spy points on all clauses (see "spy X").
* spy X Set a spy point on clauses for X (atom or list)
tab(X) Print X spaces on the current output
tell(X) Switch current output to be to file X (atom)
telling(X) X is the current output file (atom)
told Close current output file, and switch back
to standard output
* true (A goal that always succeeds)
var(X) X is a variable (uninstantiated)
* write(X) Write term X on current output (taking
account of operators)
* X , Y X and Y
* X ; Y X or Y
* X < Y Integer expression X evaluates to less
than integer expression Y
* X = Y X and Y are equal
X =.. Y Y is the list of the functor of X and the
arguments of X
* X =:= Y Integer expressions X and Y are equal
X =< Y Integer expression X is less than or
equal to expression Y
X == Y X and Y are identical
* X =\= Y Integer expressions X and Y are not equal
* X > Y Integer expression X is greater than
integer expression Y
X >= Y Integer expression X is greater than
or equal to expression Y
* X is Y Expression Y is evaluated as POP to give X
(although Y is in prolog syntax)
* X \= Y X and Y are not equal
X \== Y X and Y are not identical
* [-X] Equivalent to "reconsult(X)"
[X] Equivalent to "consult(X)"
-- Relevant reading -----------------------------------------------------
W.S.Clocksin & C.S.Mellish, Programming in Prolog
R.Kowalski, Logic for Problem Solving
There is a large and growing collection of additional books on Prolog.
--- C.all/teach/prolog
--- Copyright University of Sussex 1989. All rights reserved. ----------